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Δ⁷-Dehydrocholesterol reductase (DHCR) is a membrane-bound enzyme that catalyzes the final step of cholesterol biosynthesis (the reduction of the C7-8 double bond in 7-dehydrocholesterol to form cholesterol), using NADPH as a cofactor. DHCR is ubiquitously expressed.

β-catenin protein is an integral part of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. Wnt binding to Frizzled (Fz) receptors and LRP co-receptors activates Dishevelled (Dsh) proteins; these in turn inhibit the destruction complex responsible for degrading β-catenin, which includes GSK-3.

The δ opioid receptor (also known as OP₁, DOP, DOR) is a member of the opioid family of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes μ, κ and NOP receptors. In the CNS, δ opioid receptors are primarily distributed in the olfactory bulb, nucleus accumbens and neocortex.

γ-secretase is a multi-subunit internal protease that cleaves within the transmembrane domain of its substrates. It is an integral membrane protein and minimally consists of four proteins; presenilin, nicastrin, APH-1 and PEN-2. γ-secretase is involved in the processing of Notch.

The κ opioid receptor, (also known as OP₂, KOP, KOR), is a member of the opioid family of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes μ, δ and NOP receptors. Three variants of the receptor (designated κ₁, κ₂, and κ₃) have been characterized.

The μ opioid receptor, (also known as OP₃, MOP, MOR), is a member of the opioid family of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes κ, δ and NOP receptors. Three splice variants of the receptor (designated μ₁, μ₂ and μ₃) have been characterized.

σ₁ receptors are members of the σ family of receptors that also includes σ₂ receptors. They are distinguished from σ₂ receptors as they have high affinity and stereoselectivity for the (+)-isomers of pentazocine, SK&F 10047 and cyclazocine, and different subcellular localizations.

σ2 receptors are members of the sigma (σ) family of receptors that also includes σ1 receptors. Originally thought to be opioid receptors or the phencyclidine binding site on the NMDA receptor, more recently σ2 receptors have been identified as the endoplasmic reticulum transmembrane protein, TMEM97.

11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases (11β-HSD) isozymes 11β-HSD1 and 11β-HSD2 catalyze the interconversion of cortisol and cortisone. 11β-HSD1 converts cortisone to cortisol, the active hormone; and 11β-HSD2 converts cortisol to cortisone, the inactive form.

14.3.3 proteins are a group of highly conserved proteins that are involved in many vital cellular processes such as metabolism, protein trafficking, signal transduction, apoptosis and cell cycle regulation. 14.3.3 proteins are phospho-serine/-threonine binding proteins.

3C and 3C-like proteases are cysteine proteases found in positive sense RNA viruses such as coronaviruses and picornaviruses. 3CLpro from beta coronaviruses is also known as main protease, M^pro. These proteases are key components of the viral life cycle and, as such, are a potential target for the development of inhibitors to treat coronavirus infection.

5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized from L-tryptophan in serotonergic neurons and enterochromaffin cells of the gastrointestinal tract. 5-HT acts at serotonin receptors, which have been classified into seven groups (5-HT_1-7) based on their pharmacological profiles, cDNA-deduced primary sequences and signal transduction mechanisms.

5-HT transporters (serotonin transporters, SERT) are sodium- and chloride-dependent members of the solute carrier family 6 (SLC6) found widely distributed throughout the brain. They are responsible for re-uptake of 5-HT and undergo a conformational change to move molecules.

Serotonin 5-HT₁ receptors are a subfamily of 5-HT receptors which bind the neurotransmitter serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine. Five subtypes have been identified (5-HT_1A, 5-HT_1B, 5-HT_1D, 5-ht_1E and 5-HT_1F), all of which are G-protein-coupled receptors that couple to G_i/o causing a decrease in cAMP levels.

The serotonin 5-HT_1A receptor was the first 5-HT receptor to be fully sequenced. 5-HT_1A receptor binding sites are located primarily in limbic brain areas, notably the hypothalamus and cortical areas. The human gene encoding this receptor has been localized to chromosome 5.

Serotonin 5-HT_1B receptors are primarily located in the basal ganglia, striatum, hippocampus and vascular smooth muscle. 5-HT_1B receptors play a role in thermoregulation, respiration, appetite control, sexual behavior and aggression.

Serotonin 5-HT_1D receptors, previously known as 5-HT_1Dα receptors, are located primarily in the basal ganglia, hippocampus, cortex, spinal cord and vascular smooth muscle cells. 5-HT_1D receptors are thought to be involved in neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression.

Serotonin 5-HT_1F receptors, previously known as 5-HT_1Eβ receptors, are located primarily in the hippocampus, cortex and dorsal raphe nucleus. The human 5-HT_1F receptor is closely related to the 5-ht_1E receptor and its gene has been localized to chromosome 3 (3q11).

Serotonin 5-HT₂ receptors are a subfamily of 5-HT receptors which bind the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). Three subtypes have been identified: 5-HT_2A, 5-HT_2B and 5-HT_2C.

Serotonin 5-HT_2A receptors, previously known as 5-HT₂ receptors, are located primarily in the neocortex, caudate nucleus, nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, and vascular and non-vascular smooth muscle cells. 5-HT_2A receptors play a role in the control of appetite.

Serotonin 5-HT_2B receptors, previously known as 5-HT_2F receptors, are located primarily in the stomach fundus, uterus, vascular endothelial and vascular and GI smooth muscle, with limited distribution in the brain. 5-HT_2B overexpression leads to ventricular hypertrophy.

Serotonin 5-HT_2C receptors, previously known as 5-HT_1C receptors, are located primarily in the choroid plexus, cortex, limbic system and basal ganglia. 5-HT_2C receptors play a role in CSF volume regulation, thermoregulation, penile erection and anxiety.

Serotonin 5-HT₃ receptors, are ligand-gated ion channels of the Cys-loop family. The receptor consists of four transmembrane domains that form an intrinsic cation-selective channel. So far five human 5-HT₃ receptor subtypes have been identified (5-HT_3A-E).

Serotonin 5-HT₄ receptors are located primarily in nigrostriatal and mesolimbic systems and smooth muscle. The receptor plays a role in memory and learning, anxiety, visual perception and smooth muscle relaxation.

Serotonin 5-HT₆ receptors are located primarily in the striatum, olfactory tubercles, nucleus accumbens and hippocampus. Functions of 5-HT₆ receptors include modulation of cholinergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission, and a role in spatial learning and memory.

Serotonin 5-HT₇ receptors are located primarily in the thalamus, hypothalamus and hippocampus. The function of these receptors includes the regulation of circadian rhythms, thermoregulation, learning and memory and smooth muscle relaxation.

Serotonin 5-ht_1E receptors are primarily located in the frontal cortex, caudate putamen, claustrum, hippocampus, and amygdala. The human 5-ht_1E receptor gene has been localized to chromosome 6 (6q14-q15); the receptor is closely related to the serotonin 5-HT_1F receptor.

Serotonin 5-ht₅ receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors that preferentially couple to G_s and promote cAMP formation. Two 5-ht₅ receptor subtypes (5-ht_5a and 5-ht_5b) have been found in rodents and humans.

A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) are a group of proteins, which bind the regulatory subunits (RI and RII) of protein kinase A (PKA), anchoring it to specific locations within the cell. AKAPs play a central role in the regulation of signal transduction.

ACE2 is a single-pass, transmembrane protease enzyme that has high homology with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). It is the host cell receptor for several coronaviruses but also plays a role in the renin-angiotensin system where it inactivates angiotensin II by converting it to angiotensin 1-7.

ADAMs (a disintegrin and metalloproteases) are a family of transmembrane metalloproteinases that function as proteases and/or adhesion molecules. They are members of the M12B adamalysin protease subfamily, which also includes reprolysins and ADAMTs.

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) is a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) that was first identified in anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) as part of the fusion protein NPM-ALK. ALK has been implicated in the pathogenesis of many types of cancer.

AMPA receptors are members of the ionotropic class of glutamate receptors, which also includes NMDA and Kainate receptors. AMPA receptors mediate fast excitatory synaptic transmission and play a role in hippocampal synaptic long-term potentiation and depression.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a heterodimeric protein serine/threonine kinase that is composed of α- (catalytic) and β/γ- (regulatory) subunits. AMPK acts as a sensor of the energy status of cells and ensures survival during times of cellular metabolic stress.

Activator Protein-1 (AP-1) is a collective term referring to dimeric transcription factors composed of Jun, Fos, Jun-dimerization partners or ATF subunits. They bind to AP-1 DNA recognition elements known as TREs and control cell proliferation, transformation, survival and death.

Apoptosis signal-regulated kinase 1 (ASK1) is a serine/threonine kinase, MAP3K family member, which induces apoptosis through the activation of JNK and p38. ASK1 has been implicated in the pathology of neurodegenerative and oxidative stress-related diseases.

ATM (Ataxia telangiectasia mutated) and ATR (Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related) are closely related kinases that are activated by DNA damage. They are serine-threonine protein kinases which are part of the phosphatidylinositol 3' kinase-like kinase (PIKK) enzyme family.

ATP citrate lyase (ATP citrate synthase, ACLY) is a transferase that catalyzes the conversion of citrate and coenzyme A to acetyl-CoA. ACLY is the key regulator between the high rates of aerobic glycolysis and de novo lipid synthesis exhibited in many types of tumor cells.

ATPases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of a phosphate bond in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to form adenosine diphosphate (ADP). They harness the energy released from the breakdown of the phosphate bond and utilize it to perform other cellular reactions. ATPases are essential enzymes in all known forms of life and have fundamental roles in energy conservation, active transport and pH homeostasis.

The Abl family of non-receptor tyrosine kinases includes c-Abl (Abelson tyrosine kinase) and Arg (Abl2) subtypes. c-Abl is localized at many subcellular sites including the nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, where it interacts with several proteins.

Muscarinic receptors are widely distributed throughout the body and control distinct functions according to location and subtype (M₁ - M₅).They are predominantly expressed in the parasympathetic nervous system where they exert both inhibitory and excitatory effects.

Nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) are ligand-gated ion channels that modulate cell membrane potentials. Each receptor is composed of pentameric combinations of subunits (α1-10, β1-4, δ, ε and γ). Nicotinic receptors are generally divided into three functional classes: muscle subunits (α1, β1, δ, ε, γ), standard neuronal subunits (α1-6 and β2-4) that form in pairwise αβ combinations, and subunits (α7-9) that can form homomeric nAChRs. Neuronal nicotinic receptors are found in the central nervous system and in autonomic ganglia where they regulate processes such as transmitter release, cell excitability and neuronal integration. Nicotinic receptors located at the neuromuscular junctions of somatic muscles are responsible for muscular contraction.

Vesicular acetylcholine transporters (VAChTs) are members of the solute carrier family 18 (SLC18) of ATP-dependent transporters that also includes vesicular monoamine transporters (VMAT) 1 and VMAT2. VAChT is found in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASIC) are members of the ENaC/Deg (epithelial amiloride-sensitive Na⁺ channel and degenerin) family of ion channels and are widely expressed in neurons of the central and peripheral nervous system.

Activated Cdc42-associated kinase 1 (Ack1, E.C. 2.7.10.2), also known as TNK2, is a 114 kDa member of the Ack family of mammalian non-receptor tyrosine kinases (NRTKs) which is activated by multiple receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) to perform various roles within the cell.

Actin is a ubiquitous globular protein that is one of the most highly-conserved proteins known. It is found in two main states: G-actin is the globular monomeric form, whereas F-actin forms helical polymers. Both G- and F-actin are intrinsically flexible structures.

Acyl-coenzyme A (CoA):cholesterol acyltransferases (ACATs), EC 2.3.1.38, are integral membrane proteins that catalyze the conversion of cholesterol to cholesteryl esters. ACATs have been implicated in the pathology of atherosclerosis and Alzheimer's disease.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), addiction is 'a chronic disease of the central nervous system that is characterized by a loss of control over impulsive behavior that leads to compulsive drug seeking and taking, and to relapses even after months of abstinence'. Addiction is a complex neuroadaptive process, where drugs of abuse alter cellular and molecular aspects of neural function. The brain circuits mediating the various behavioral effects of these drugs are rendered more, or less, responsive to those effects.

The adenine receptor is a putative G-protein-coupled receptor thought to be involved in purinergic signalling. Reflecting the existing nomenclature of this family, a proposed classification of 'P0 receptor' has been suggested. Adenine acts as a ligand at certain Mas-related G protein-coupled receptors (MRGPRs).

The A₁ receptor is a member of the adenosine receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes A_2A, A_2B and A₃. A₁ receptors display high expression levels in the brain (cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus), dorsal horn of the spinal cord, eye and atria.

Adenosine A_2A receptors are members of the adenosine receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes A₁, A_2B and A₃. A_2A receptors display high expression levels in the spleen, thymus, leukocytes, blood platelets and the olfactory bulb.

Adenosine A_2B receptors are members of the adenosine receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes A₁, A_2A and A₃. A_2B receptors display high expression levels in the cecum, colon and bladder, with lower levels in the lung, blood vessels and eye.

The adenosine A₃ receptor is a member of the adenosine receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes A₁, A_2A and A_2B. They display high expression levels in the testes and mast cells of rats, with low expression levels in the thyroid, liver, kidney and heart.

Adenosine kinase (ADK) is a highly conserved monomeric enzyme that constitutes the primary route of adenosine metabolism under normal conditions. ADK decreases intracellular adenosine levels by catalyzing its conversion into AMP and ADP, using ATP as a phosphate donor.

Adenosine is an endogenous nucleoside that is present in all body fluids where it predominantly exhibits a cytoprotective function. Four adenosine receptors (P1 purinergic receptors) have been cloned from several mammalian species and have been classified as A₁, A_2A, A_2B and A₃.

Adenylyl Cyclases (AC) are a group of enzymes that convert adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) into 3',5'-adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP/cAMP) and pyrophosphate. There are ten different mammalian isoforms of adenylyl cylase; nine of which are membrane-bound.

Adrenergic α₁ receptors (α₁-adrenoceptors) are members of the adrenergic receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes α_2A, α_2B, α_2C, β₁, β₂ and β₃. The adrenergic α₁ receptors are further divided into three subtypes: α_1A, α_1B and α_1D receptors.

Adrenergic α₂ receptors (α₂-adrenoceptors) are members of the adrenergic receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes α_1A, α_1B, α_1D, β₁, β₂ and β₃. Adrenergic α₂ receptors are divided into three subtypes in humans: α_2A, α_2B and α_2C.

The adrenergic β₁ receptor (β₁-adrenoceptor) is a member of the adrenergic receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes α_1A, α_1B, α_1D, α_2A, α_2B, α_2C, β₂ and β₃. They are located primarily in the CNS, heart, coronary artery, kidney and muscle.

The adrenergic β₂ receptor (β₂-adrenoceptor) is a member of the adrenergic receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes α_1A, α_1B, α_1D, α_2A, α_2B, α_2C, β₁ and β₃. They are located primarily in the CNS, heart, kidney and muscle.

The adrenergic β₃ receptor (β₃-adrenoceptor) is a member of the adrenergic receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes α_1A, α_1B, α_1D, α_2A, α_2B, α_2C, β₁ and β₂. They are located primarily in the small intestine, adipose tissue and vascular endothelium.

Adrenergic receptors (adrenoceptors) are classified into two main groups, α and β. The α group has been further divided into α₁ and α₂ which are, in turn, subdivided into α_1A, α_1B, α_1D and α_2A, α_2B and α_2C respectively. β-Adrenoceptors are currently classified into β₁, β₂ and β₃ subgroups with a putative β₄ receptor, as yet uncloned but exhibiting a distinct pharmacological profile.

Adrenergic transporters (NET) are sodium- and chloride-dependent members of the solute carrier family 6 (SLC6) widely distributed throughout the brain within noradrenergic neuronal plasma membranes. They are responsible for re-uptake of adrenalin and noradrenalin.

Akt (Protein kinase B, PKB) is a serine/threonine kinase that plays a key in regulating cell survival, angiogenesis and tumor formation. Akt is a downstream mediator of the PI 3-K pathway, which results in the recruitment of Akt to the plasma membrane.

Mammalian alcohol dehydrogenases are a family of enzymes which catalyze the oxidation of alcohols into aldehyde or ketones, with the aid of a co-enzyme, NAD⁺. In humans, there are five classes (I-V) of alcohol dehydrogenases, encoded by at least seven different genes.

Aldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes oxidize aldehydes to generate carboxylic acids for use in the muscle and heart. Numerous aldehyde dehydrogenase genes exist, of which ALDH2 is best known for its role in alcohol oxidation.

Aldose reductase (also known as aldehyde reductase) catalyzes the reduction of a wide variety of hydrophobic and hydrophilic carbonyl-containing compounds to their corresponding alcohols. This enzyme is cytosolic, exists as a monomer and requires NADPH as a co-factor.

Allergy is a hypersensitivity disorder characterized by an exaggerated immunologic response to an otherwise innocuous agent, called an allergen. Allergies can be caused by both host (race, gender, hereditary) and environmental factors (pollution, diet, infection).

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common type of dementia, is an irreversible and progressive neurodegenerative disorder causing cognitive and functional impairment. It is characterized by formation of protein aggregates and progressive loss of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). The symptoms of AD include short-term memory loss, confusion, irritability, aggression and mood swings, progressing to long-term memory deficit, withdrawal from social interactions and subsequently a loss in higher central functioning.

Aminopeptidases catalyze the removal of amino acids from the amino terminus of proteins and peptides. They express different substrate specificities - for example, leucyl aminopeptidase preferentially cleaves leucine residues.

Amyloid β (Aβ) peptides are the major component of amyloid plaques found in the brains of Alzheimer's patients. Aβ is formed from the progressive cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β- and γ-secretase. Two Aβ peptides are formed from APP degradation.

The Ancillary Material (or AM) Grade range of small molecules has been developed by Tocris for use as ancillary reagents or raw materials in the manufacture of cell therapies. These products are manufactured with additional levels of control compared to our standard catalog (research use only or RUO) product range to ensure the safety of your cell therapy product.

To view Bio-Techne's complete solutions for Cell and Gene Therapy manufacturing, please visit bio-techne.com.

Androgen receptors (ARs) (dihydrotestosterone receptors) are nuclear hormone receptors of the NR3C class, which includes mineralocorticoid, progesterone and glucocorticoid receptors. ARs are expressed in bone marrow, mammary gland and prostate tissues.

Angiogenesis (also known as neovascularization) is the generation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vasculature. It is a normal process in growth and development and is required for the formation of arteries, veins, and capillaries in an embryo.

The angiotensin₁ receptor (AT₁) is a member of the angiotensin group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes AT₂ and AT₄. They are located primarily in the liver, kidney, adrenal gland and lung. AT₁ receptors preferentially bind angiotensin II.

The angiotensin₂ receptor (AT₂) is a member of the angiotensin receptor group of G-protein-coupled receptors that also includes AT₁ and AT₄. They are located primarily in the brain, adrenal medulla, heart and uterus where they counterbalance the effects of AT₁.

The angiotensin family of peptides is important in the regulation of blood volume, vascular resistance and electrolyte balance. Angiotensin II, the main peptide of the renin-angiotensin system, produces a variety of physiological effects. It is produced in a cascade whereby the precursor peptide angiotensinogen is cleaved to produce renin and angiotensin I. Angiotensin-converting enzyme then acts on angiotensin I to yield the octapeptide angiotensin II, and further processing generates angiotensin III and IV. These peptides act on three angiotensin receptor subtypes, AT₁, AT₂ and AT₄, the properties of which are summarized below. The actions of angiotensin II are primarily mediated by AT₁, whereas AT₂ preferentially binds angiotensin III and AT₄ is selective for angiotensin IV.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE; also known as peptidyl dipeptidase A or carboxycathepsin) is a central component of the Renin-Angiotensin System, where the enzyme cleaves angiotensin I to release the vasoconstrictor peptide, angiotensin II. The ACE2 homolog inactivates angiotensin II by converting it to angiotensin 1-7. ACE2 is thought to be the host cell receptor for coronaviruses.

Antiangiogenic agents are compounds which prevent angiogenesis in vitro and/or in vivo. Angiogenesis inhibitors may be endogenous or synthetic; others are obtained from diet, for example resveratrol.

Antibiotics are compounds used to treat or prevent bacterial infections by killing or inhibiting growth of bacteria. They are also used in cell culture to prevent contamination, particularly by Mycoplasma species. Antibiotics may be chemically synthesized or isolated from natural sources, such as fungi.

Antifade Reagents provide protection against fading or photobleaching for most common fluorophores used in live and fixed cell fluorescent imaging.

Antifungals (also known as antimycotics) are a pharmacologically diverse group of compounds used to treat mycoses (fungal infections) in humans and animals. They may also be used in cell culture to prevent contamination. Most antimycotic products act by interfering with the integrity of the fungal cell membrane or cell wall.

Antimalarials are used to treat malaria, a disease caused by protozoan parasites of the Plasmodium genus, which are transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes. Most of these compounds target the erythrocytic stage of the infection. Quinoline derivatives such as a chloroquine and mefloquine act by accumulating in the parasite food vacuole and inhibiting the biocrystallization of hemozoin, a breakdown product of hemoglobin, resulting in accumulation of cytotoxic heme. The action of Artemisinin, a Chinese herb, and its derivatives appears to involve the heme-mediated cleavage of endoperoxide bridges to produce free radicals.

Antivirals are drugs that inhibit viral infection, targeting virus entry, assembly or replication. Mechanisms of antiviral action include blocking virus replication at key points, such as interfering with DNA polymerization or protease inhibition. They are used to treat viral infections such as HIV and CMV.

Visit our COVID-19 Research Area for more information about the diesase and products for SARS-CoV-2 research.

The Apelin (APJ) receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor for which Apelin-36, apelin-13 and [Pyr¹]-apelin-13 are the predominant endogenous ligands. Elabela (ELA; also known as Toddler) has been proposed as another endogenous ligand for this receptor. The APJ receptor mediates cardiovascular function, fluid homeostasis and adipocyte endocrine secretion.

To view Bio-Techne's complete solutions for lipid metabolism, glucose homeostasis, and energy balance, please visit our metabolism page on bio-techne.com.

Apoptosis is a mechanism of cell death that occurs after sufficient cellular damage. It occurs normally during development and aging and is considered a vital component of cell turnover, cell development and function of the immune system. It occurs as a defense mechanism such as in immune reactions or when cells are damaged by disease or noxious agents.

Apoptosis inducers exhibit pro-apoptotic effects through a variety of mechanisms, including DNA cross-linking, inhibition of antiapoptotic proteins and activation of caspases. These inducers may target a specific cellular process in order to induce antitumor or antineoplastic effects.

Light-up RNA aptamers or Fluorescent light-up aptamers (FLAPs) are a genetically-encoded RNA imaging platform. They are designed to bind specific fluorogenic dyes that 'light-up' only in the bound state. This property of 'fluorogenicity' means that fluorescence can be 'switched on' upon RNA expression. Light-up aptamers can be thought of as the RNA counterpart to fluorescent proteins, such as GFP. Commonly used light-up aptamers include Spinach, Mango, Corn and Broccoli, named for their vibrant colors.

Aptamers are short, single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules that bind with high selectivity and affinity to a target of interest. They are highly versatile and are used as molecular tools in life science research, therapeutics or diagnostics.

Aquaporins (AQPs) are integral membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of water across biological membranes along an osmotic gradient. There have been 13 AQP isoforms (AQP0-AQP12) identified in humans and rodents to date.

Arf GTPases regulate vesicle trafficking, budding and tethering, and cytoskeleton organization. The family contains Class I, II and III Arfs, as well as related GTPases. Aberrant activity and expression of specific family members has been linked to cancer progression and tumor invasion and proliferation.

An arrhythmia (also known as cardiac dysrhythmia) is defined as an irregular heartbeat, and results from abnormal electrical activity in the heart. There are various different types of arrhythmia, often resulting in a heartbeat that is too fast (tachycardia) or too slow (bradycardia). Atrial and ventricular fibrillation, which are the most common cardiac arrhythmias, account for 10-20% of all deaths among adults in the Western world. The incidence of atrial fibrillation increases with age; it not only affects cardiac function, but also increases the risk of stroke and may worsen heart failure.

Arthritis is an inflammatory disease of the joints, including the synovium, cartilage, bone, and supporting tissues. It is the leading cause of disability in the US and there are over 100 different types of the disease. The most common types of arthritis are osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis and gout.